Foods with Vitamin A

Which foods contain vitamin A?

According to the NIH, concentrations of preformed vitamin A are highest in liver, fish, eggs, and dairy products; provitamin A in the US diet comes mostly from green leafy vegetables, orange and yellow vegetables, tomato products, fruits, and some vegetable oils. Vitamin A is added to some products such as milk and margarine, and some breakfast cereals are fortified. ^[1] EFSA lists meat, butter, dairy products, eggs, and sweet potatoes, carrots, pumpkin, dark green leafy vegetables, red sweet pepper, mango, and cantaloupe among foods rich in vitamin A. ^[4] The NHS lists cheese, eggs, oily fish such as salmon, sardines, trout, herring, and mackerel, fortified reduced-fat spreads, milk and yogurt, and liver products; and, as sources of beta-carotene, spinach, carrots, sweet potatoes, red peppers, mango, papaya, and apricots. ^[2]

According to the NIH, about 65–80% of the vitamin A consumed in the US and other high-income countries comes from preformed vitamin A; in low-income countries, because of plant-based diets, the main form is provitamin A. ^[1]

How much vitamin A is there per serving?

The table below is based on the US (USDA) servings reported by the NIH; “cup” is the US measure (about 240 mL), and 3 oz is about 85 g. The content of products sold in Türkiye and fortification practices may differ. The Daily Value (DV) is 900 µg RAE.

Animal foods contain mainly preformed vitamin A and plant foods provitamin A; mixed products can contain both. The values in the table are a single product measurement and can vary with the type, preparation, and product of the same food. ^[1]

Why does liver need a separate warning?

Liver has the highest value in the table in a single serving: 85 g of pan-fried beef liver contains 6,582 µg RAE; this is about 7 times the NIH’s adult male RDA (900 µg RAE) and more than twice the upper limit for preformed vitamin A for adults (3,000 µg/day). The upper limit is defined not for a single meal but for long-term habitual daily intake; EFSA and the NHS therefore warn about liver on the basis of frequency of consumption rather than single-serving amount. ^[3] This calculation rests on the single measurement in the table; the amount can vary in other types of liver and preparations. ^[1]

The messages of the organizations differ from one another; they are given side by side below:

• NHS (UK): Liver and liver pâté are a particularly rich source of vitamin A; eating them more than once a week can lead to excess vitamin A intake. In pregnancy, liver and liver products are avoided. People who eat liver every week are advised not to use supplements containing vitamin A (including cod liver oil). ^[2]
• EFSA 2024: According to current consumption data, the European population is not expected to exceed the preformed vitamin A UL if it eats liver, offal, and their products once a month or less often. Women who are pregnant or planning pregnancy are advised not to consume liver products. ^[3]

In pregnancy the rationale is that high preformed vitamin A intake is associated with birth defects; the details are in the main guide. This warning is not made for plant foods containing beta-carotene: the NIH reports that beta-carotene is not known to be teratogenic. ^[1]

Absorption of carotenoids and cooking

Provitamin A in foods is not entirely converted to vitamin A in the body. According to the NIH, the body can absorb about 75–100% of the retinol in foods and, in most cases, 10–30% of beta-carotene; 1 µg RAE corresponds to 12 µg of beta-carotene in foods. Cooking and heat treatment can increase the bioavailability of beta-carotene in foods. ^[1] It has also been reported that the conversion rate can vary from person to person (genetic differences in the BCMO1 enzyme). ^[1]

There is no separate upper limit for plant provitamin A in foods; the NIH states that the most common effect of taking very high amounts of beta-carotene for a long time is a harmless and reversible skin color change (carotenoderma). ^[1]

Food or supplement?

Citing the 2020–2025 US Dietary Guidelines, the NIH reports that nutrient requirements should be met primarily through food, and that fortified foods and supplements may be useful when needs cannot be met otherwise. ^[1] The NHS also states that all the vitamin A needed can be obtained from a varied and balanced diet and adds that if a supplement is taken, excess may be harmful. ^[2] Reference intakes and upper limits are given in the main guide.